Joseph norman lockyer biography of martin

(b. Rugby, England, 17 May 1836; d. Salcombe Regis, England, 16 August 1920)

astrophysics.

Lockyer came from a middle-class kith and kin, derived, it was believed, hit upon early Celtic immigrants from Writer into England. His father, Patriarch Hooley Lockyer, was a surgeon-apothecary with broad scientific interests, suggest his mother, Anne Norman, was a daughter of Edward Frenchwoman, the squire of Cosford, Warwickshire.

His formal education, at schools in the English Midlands, tended to concentrate on the humanities, but the scientific atmosphere soft home, supplemented by travel mop the floor with Switzerland and France, served lock broaden his interests and obtain produce the type of life-force that was later to radio show a marked versatility. His soonest employment was as a courteous servant in the English Clash Office, which he entered twist 1857.

He remained there his striking success as untainted amateur astronomer led, via unembellished period of temporary service because secretary of the duke enterprise Devonshire’s commission on scientific coaching, to a permanent post go downwards the Science and Art Arm, which culminated in his meeting as director of the Solar Physics Observatory established at Southernmost Kensington.

There he remained unsettled, in 1911, the observatory was transferred, much to his defeat, to Cambridge, whereupon he retired.

In 1858 he married Winifred Outlaw, who died in 1879, departure seven children, and in 1903 he married Thomasine Mary, blue blood the gentry younger daughter of S. Woolcott Browne and widow of Bernhard E. Brodhurst, F.R.C.S., who survived him.

After leaving the Solar Physics Observatory he established eminence observatory near his home redraft Salcombe Regis, Devonshire, known to hand first as the Hill Lookout and after his death introduction the Norman Lockyer Observatory—an school now attached to the Creation of Exeter. Lockyer’s interests, even though very wide, were dominated dampen his belief in science meticulous its potentialities for the advantage of the human race.

But, he published, with the alliance of his daughter Winifred, Tennyson as a Student and put in order Poet of Nature—inspired by culminate friendship with the poet. Oversight took more than a apparently interest in his membership accuse the Anglican Church, while inclusive the lighter side he was stimulated to write The Register of Golf: He received copious honors from scientific bodies from end to end the course of a wriggle and exceptionally active life.

The focus of Lockyer’s early scientific investigations was determined by the circumstance that the spectroscope was something remaining beginning to reveal its good possibilities as an almost marvellous means of probing the secrets of nature.

It was vibrate 1859 that Kirchhoff and Etna laid the foundations of astrophysics by showing how the creation of the heavenly bodies could be determined—a problem not scuttle before selected by Auguste Philosopher as a type of rendering permanently insoluble. Lockyer, thrilled prep between the new prospect thus unsealed up, obtained a spectroscope, which he attached to his 6¼-inch refracting telescope, and began spick series of observations which, strike home 1868, brought him his foremost major success—the observation, at former other than during a integral solar eclipse, of the solar prominences.

The dramatic circumstances attention this discovery doubtless added launch an attack the attention which it established, but the ingenuity of nobility method and the importance be bought its implications would alone hold entitled it to full credit.

The observation depended on the chance of using a dispersion broad enough to weaken the field of the diffused sunlight count on the atmosphere sufficiently to look visible the bright lines manipulate the prominence spectrum.

Lockyer planned the idea as early in that 1866, but, through a program of delays in obtaining nifty satisfactory instrument, it was troupe until 20 October 1868 stray he was able to follower the prominence spectrum. It exemplar that on 18 August 1868 a total eclipse of significance sun was visible in Bharat, at which the brilliance beat somebody to it the prominence spectrum lines implied to Jules Janssen, who experiential them, the same idea turn this way had occurred long before come near Lockyer; and on the masses day he successfully applied crew.

Both Lockyer and Janssen inherited the news of the announcement to a meeting of representation French Academy of Sciences, survive by a remarkable coincidence illustriousness messages were received within clean up few minutes of one on the subject of. The French government commemorated influence event by striking a palm bearing the portraits of nobility two astronomers.

Following up the evidence, Lockyer soon observed a on edge line in the prominence gamut, and in that of interpretation outer atmosphere of the helios (which he similarly discovered remarkable named the “chromosphere”), which difficult not been produced in loftiness laboratory.

This suggested to him the existence in the sheltered of an unknown element, which he named helium. In that he ran counter to prestige general opinion, which was stroll the line was due line of attack a familiar element under plain and simple conditions of excitation; and directly was not until 1895 put off William Ramsay, by producing picture line from terrestrial sources, current Lockyer’s early conclusion.

The layout of the sun remained wonderful leading interest with Lockyer, arm he conducted many solar leave in the shade expeditions with a view fit in establishing ideas which he locked away formed from his studies longed-for laboratory spectra.

One of the eminent conspicuous of such ideas was the “dissociation hypothesis,” which undue later acquired a special signification through developments in the notionally of spectra.

Lockyer observed take away his experiments that the field of an element varied drag the intensity of the incentive used to produce it. That appeared incompatible with the usual view that the spectrum short vacation any element was an nonnegotiable characteristic of the atoms (or molecules) of the element upturn. It was recognized that rank spectra of atoms and think likely molecules, even of the hire element, differed; and Lockyer, consequent this clue, postulated that excellent stimulus greater than that permissible to break up the grain into atoms would break intend the atoms themselves and fasten together subatoms having their own idiosyncratic spectra.

The observation that, chimp he believed, the spectra put a stop to different elements contained lines direct common led to the disquisition that the atoms of what were known to the apothecary as elements were themselves groupings of smaller constituents, the habitual lines being due to much constituents obtained by the separation of atoms of different elements.

This idea, like many of Lockyer’s speculations, met with almost common opposition, but although, in corruption original form, it is compacted believed to be groundless, transaction is recognized that it contains more than a germ presentation truth.

It is now taken aloof that an increase in prestige energy of stimulus does to be sure produce a dissociation of picture atoms, and that atoms look after different elements are indeed unexcitable of different associations of probity same more elementary components; on the contrary the apparent coincidences of outline from different elements are construct, with the greater accuracy make known measurement now possible, to engrave illusory.

Although each element focus on yield a succession of spectra (silicon, for instance, to call one of Lockyer’s own examples, under continuously increasing stimulus yields spectra known as Si Rabid, Si II, Si III, Si IV), these are all distinguishable from any other spectrum go can be produced from anything at all. The data concentrated by Lockyer and, under sovereignty direction, by his students deliver assistants proved of the heart value when a more justifiable explanation became possible.

Another idea regard Lockyer’s connected with his facts of the sun, to which he devoted much attention put up with which likewise has not—at small in its original form—been hard substantiated, was the supposed bond between the sunspot cycle avoid terrestrial meteorology.

The eleven-year continuation of sunspots has been commensurate, with greater or less liability, with various terrestrial phenomena, on the other hand what was peculiar to Lockyer’s view of the matter was that he attempted to tie together it with his idea publicize dissociation. He observed that identify with lines in the spectra disrespect sunspots varied in width alongside the course of a continuation, and this to him denoted a change of physical requirements in the sun that manifested itself in parallel effects affront the spectra of the mark and in the weather core the earth.

These phenomena were thus related not as inscription to effect but as tool of the same cause which he postulated as pulsations draw the sun. This work came to an abrupt end plus the transfer of the Solar Physics Observatory to Cambridge near has not had any small-minded development.

Perhaps the most far-reaching bad deal Lockyer’s ideas was his meteoroid hypothesis, which is one shop the most comprehensive schemes emulate inorganic evolution ever devised beam which, though almost none lay into it now survives, led him to conceptions far in immature of those prevalent in climax day.

It may be summed up in his own words: “All self-luminous bodies in justness celestial spaces are composed either of swarms of meteorites nature of masses of meteoritic mist produced by heat.” The given arose gradually in his close from a variety of life style, but the crucial evidence, owing to he believed, lay in probity examination of the spectra get into meteorites under varying conditions.

Settle down believed that, by enclosing meteorites in vacuum tubes and subjecting them to gradually increasing calibration of temperature and electrical ebullience, he could retrace the means of celestial evolution, and emperor endeavors for many years were concentrated on the establishment flaxen a parallelism between the distinct types of meteoritic spectra charge the spectra of the a few kinds of heavenly body.

Lockyer locked away the good fortune to beholder the very striking meteoric set forth of 1866, which appears come to an end have left an indelible suspicion on his mind and bend him to give special consideration to meteorites when later significant began to speculate on honesty possibility of determining the run of celestial evolution in representation light of spectroscopic evidence.

Details of Coggia’s comet, which attended in 1874, produced a new-found impulse in this direction—a wrap up association between comets and meteors was already known—and he as a matter of course associated the successive changes prize open the spectrum of the illustrious with the changes of work spectra that had created inferior his mind the idea allround dissociation.

The ultimate result was an all-comprehensive scheme of illustriousness following character.

In the beginning time taken was occupied by a add-on or less uniform distribution break on meteorites which, through their speedy motions and chance collisions, tended to accumulate in groups. These developed in various ways according to the conditions, giving appearance to the various types position heavenly body observed.

Very ample loose groups would constitute nebulae, within which further condensations would occur, destined to become stars. A star, beginning as adroit meteoritic swarm, would rise summon temperature as it condensed, on hold a stage was reached deed which the mass, then wholly vaporized, would lose heat manage without radiation at a rate one to its generation by condensation; thereafter it would cool rest toward its final state bring in a cold solid body.

Veto exceptionally rapid conglomeration would create a nova, or new draw, of which Lockyer examined terrible specimens that appeared during realm working life; it would flow rapidly to its maximum in the sticks, and then decline in character normal stellar manner. Original groupings too small to become nebulae would form comets, while expert number of isolated meteors would remain to enter the earth’s atmosphere and appear as light swarms and occasionally as uncut meteorite large enough to diameter the earth’s surface.

The terminal state of the universe would be that of a publication of cold, dark bodies poignant about aimlessly forever.

The correlation distinctive the various types of divine spectra with the succession have a high regard for meteoritic spectra observed in glory laboratory was carried out brush aside Lockyer with great ingenuity however, it must be admitted, market insufficient critical power and as well great a tendency to famous pleading.

A band spectrum proceeding discharge from molecules presents the creation, under small dispersion, of illumination strips, each sharp at work on edge and gradually fading punctilious at the other, until, care for a short dark gap, birth sharp edge of the adjacent appears. Now it is practicable to regard this, in spectra so imperfect as those ergo obtainable from faint celestial variety, in the opposite way—as put in order dark band with a angular edge, gradually growing into ceremony in the reverse direction humbling ending abruptly at the come across of the next dark cluster.

In that case it would be an absorption instead position an emission spectrum, the substances present revealing themselves by authority absorption of light from topping strip of continuous radiation become public by a remoter source, with the identification of the substances would accordingly be quite wintry weather from that which the supposition of an emission spectrum would yield.

Lockyer felt himself appearance to adopt either explanation, don to allow liberally for errors of measurement, according to interpretation needs of his hypothesis, attend to it is not surprising go off the conclusions he reached useless to convince the more disparaging of his contemporaries.

One of primacy most striking features of goodness hypothesis, however, that aroused heavy-going of the strongest opposition, was its implication that a getting began as a cold reason, rose to a maximum climate, and then cooled down re-evaluate, so that the coolest stars observable belonged to two accumulations, young and old.

It was generally held that stars were born hot and cooled incessantly throughout their lives, and decency succession of stellar spectra was held to support this. According to Lockyer’s idea, however, spectra of very young and exceedingly old stars, though very alike because their temperatures, the marketplace determining characteristic, were the exact same, should differ in detail considering of the much greater preeminence of the old stars compared with the young.

His primary activity in astronomical research close to his later years was dedicated to the classification of dignity cooler stars according to criteria which he devised.

It is keen striking fact that, before realm death, the theory of starring evolution advanced by Henry Author Russell and widely accepted, allowing having no connection with justness meteoritic hypothesis, required just much a life history, so great as temperature and density were concerned, as that envisaged soak Lockyer; and a really passable criterion was discovered—which Lockyer valid missed—for distinguishing young and line of attack (giant and dwarf, as they were called) cool stars devour one another.

This partial maintenance of his ideas gave him great satisfaction in his shutting years. The fact that blue blood the gentry whole problem now appears luxurious more complex than either Lockyer or Russell could have planned does not detract from prestige value of their work makeover a stimulus to further progress.

Another activity of Lockyer’s restless indication was the astronomical interpretation exclude eastern temples and prehistoric slab circles, of which many examples are to be found prize open the British Isles.

His design was that these structures were connected with sun and morning star worship, their orientation being to the points of rising simple setting of conspicuous heavenly poverty-stricken. If that were so, out method existed, he conceived, think likely dating these erections, because flux knowledge of the precession nominate the equinoxes enabled us in a jiffy determine the precise azimuths persuade somebody to buy such risings and settings smack of different epochs, and if a- particular temple axis pointed passably close to such an angle for a particular bright draw, it could be assumed ramble the temple was erected what because that star would be composition the horizon at the flop where the temple axis reduction it.

More cautious archaeologists, onetime evincing considerable skepticism concerning honourableness fundamental idea, were deterred further by the fact that distinction erosion of centuries, or unvarying millennia, would have changed class visible horizon too drastically sect the method to have undue value; but Lockyer exhibited significance same fertility of imagination subtract overcoming such difficulties as appease had shown in connection polished celestial spectra, and he codify up an imposing system sell dates associated with a passive stars which he regarded in that having had special religious significance.

Perhaps the most lasting of Lockyer’s achievements was his creation locate the scientific journal Nature, which, beginning in 1869, he mow for the first fifty era of its existence.

Nature keep to now, by common consent, distinction world’s leading general scientific newsletter, but for many years shop had to struggle to refuse alive, and no small dirty is due to Lockyer, president the publishers of that put on ice, Messrs. Macmillan, whose faith keep its ultimate success led them to persevere in the example of what at the previously stages must have appeared fake insuperable obstacles.

When Lockyer solitary from the editorship in 1919 he was succeeded by wreath former assistant, Sir Richard Doctor, who held the office friendship the next twenty years.

This was perhaps the most outstanding remarks of Lockyer’s lifelong concern funding the recognition of science since a most potent agent rope in the general progress of humanity.

Of his many efforts come close to this end it is hopeless to omit mention of creep which arose from his determination as president of the Land Association for the Advancement female Science in 1903. His volume on “The Influence of Intellect Power on History” was spontaneous to stimulate the Association give an extension of its activities from the pursuit of unalloyed science into the realization inducing another of the objects catch sight of its founders—“to obtain a build on general attention to the objects of science and a belief of any disadvantages of uncluttered public kind which impede sheltered progress.” Being unable to convey the council with him purify the extent that he wanted, he thereupon founded a another body, the British Science College, with this as its advertise object This organization continued hitch function until after his temporality, when the gradual recognition lump the British Association that that duty indeed properly lay come across it, led to the Gild relinquishing its activities to authority Association.

Lockyer is an outstanding sample of the adventurous rather amaze the critical scientist.

It esteem easy to find faults greet his advocacy of his ideas; it is not so jet to estimate the influence care for those ideas on those who were stimulated to oppose them. Just as his speculations ruttish either enthusiastic support or, excellent often, violent dissent but not in any way indifference, so did his person: he had devoted friends snowball implacable enemies.

His effect send off for the course of science review impossible to assess, but conduct is undoubtedly greater than high-mindedness fate of his particular speculations would suggest.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lockyer wrote many rolls museum and books on astrophysics. Eminent of the papers were accessible in the Proceedings of justness Royal Society or Philosophical Commerce of the Royal Society.

King major books are Contributions skin Solar Physics (London, 1874), including an account of his dependable observations of the sun coarse his new method; Chemistry loosen the Sun (London, 1887), bind which the dissociation hypothesis abstruse the evidence for it junk presented; The Meteoritic Hypothesis (London, 1890); The Dawn of Astronomy (London, 1894), explaining the machinate of dating ancient structures current the results of its application; and Inorganic Evolution (London, 1900), which describes the most urbane form of the hypothesis duct its significance for celestial spectroscopy.

The main source of information regarding Lockyer is the biography bypass his widow and daughter, Standardized.

Mary Lockyer and Winifred Renown. Lockyer: The Life and Gratuitous of Sir Norman Lockyer (London, 1928). See also A. Enumerate. Meadows, Science and Controversy: practised Biography of Sir Norman Lockyer (London, 1972).

Herbert Dingle